Timbuktu

Timbuktu Mali Africa

Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu

Center of a significant written culture of Africa


Africa is often dubbed as a dark continent; but those who heard of Timbuktu can never call it so. Timbuktu; the ‘center of significant written culture of Africa’ is -located in Tombouctau District, Mali- was a torch spreading light all around; it was at a time when rest of the world groped amidst the gloom that encircled. Eight centuries back the district of Tombouctau was home to leading universities like Sankore and the Djinguereber and Sidi Yahya. They were the centers of excellence not only in theological disciplines but scientific and historic wisdom as well. These ancient universities did a great thing they kept written records of what was taught, these records prevail to tell all.


A golden period

Sankore Madrasah in Timbuktu

During the good times this city had a population 100,000 people but the pupils of these institutions alone were about 25,000; that means it catered the educational needs of pupils belonging to a large portion of the surrounding area. These buildings made out of clay in a typical Timbuktu style are standing tall heralding their past prominence; they are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Three centuries from the 13th to the 15th was for Timbuktu its golden period when these three centers along with numerous madrasas shone like stars spreading world-class knowledge to its pupils these ancient wisdom in the form of manuscripts if not existed; no one would have believed that such an impoverished nation like Mali was home them.


No Christians please; we are traders


Mali’s population mainly consists of Songhay, Tuarog, Fulani and Mande people and numerous nomadic tribes. The Tombouctau region where the Timbuktu sites are located is about 15 km north of River Niger; it is in the northern most part of Mali –a land locked and one of the most backward nations in the African Continent. Being located in the Sub-Saharan area these places were hard to access. The traders kept this place secret from the Europeans as they knew that the Europeans will outsmart them in trade. In the attempt to explore the location many non-Muslims traders and their informants got killed.


An entrepot


Tombouctau is located in the meeting point of the trans-Saharan trade routes and flourishing trade made this region rich. Tombouctau was an entrepot (a place where merchandise can be imported and exported without restriction, an ancient system for the present duty-free ports). The ban was only for non-Muslims and commodities of all sorts were welcome! Timbuktu even catered the needs of Europe by supplying rock salt from Taoudenni (an oasis known for its salt deposits) although the trade was not direct.


‘From here to Timbuktu’

Map of Timbuktu

Timbuktu even engaged in indirect trade with far away countries of Europe, for Europeans Timbuktu was a weird place; a symbol of all that were exotic and distant and something they have never seen, the phrase ‘from here to Timbuktu’ also means a place as far as one can imagine. Though Timbuktu was the creation of the Tuaregs (a tribe who live in the surrounding areas); it was the merchants and brisk trade that made the town rich; various kingdoms were born and flourished in the soil of Timbuktu; like the Ghana, Mali and Songhay empires.


A different style


The structure made of clay in typical style; that stands as Timbuktu University building was built on 1581; which was built on the older and the original structure which was built about two centuries back. In curriculum as well as method of teaching adopted here was entirely different from what existed in other parts of the world. There is much for the expensive modern universities can emulate from Sankore of Sidi Yahya to cut costs and make education more student friendly. It is surprising to see that Ancient Universities like Nalanda and Taxila had many similarities in their functioning with that of Sankore.


Collection of schools

Timbuktu, Mali, Africa

These great universities like Sankore, Sidi Yahya, Djinguereyber etc were in fact collections of small institutions; each managed by single faculty known as the Imam. Students were associated only with that single master. The classes were held in the open or in mosque compounds. The main theme was teaching of Qur’an but classes on logics, astronomy, history etc were also held. Ahmed Baba –a prominent historian was one of the most celebrated faculties of the university, his name is referred in classic works like Tarikh- es Sudan etc.


The real treasure!


The scholars had to write their own books based on their curriculum, socio-economic issues and all that they were taught. It is this system that has generated the numerous manuscripts (written in Arabic or Fulani) which later turned out to be very valuable documents for the historians to understand the progress the people have achieved in this part of the land. The real treasure of this time is not just the 15th century complex but the 100,000 plus manuscripts (written in Arabic or Fulani) intended for didactic (moral teaching) purpose. These manuscripts were written in various times some of them were even older than Islam itself. When the older ones mainly dealt with theological subjects; comparatively recent ones were containing history, law, science and music.


In private hands


These manuscripts had been kept by the rich families of the surrounding areas as their family treasure and most of them were being lost for lack of proper preservation. It is estimated that there are between 300,000 and 700,000 such manuscripts existing in various houses; as the possession is secret no one is able to assess exact number. At present the Ahmed Baba institute (Cedrab) founded in 1970 by the Government of Mali in collaboration with UNESCO has acquired some of them for preservation and digitalization.


Like gold; like salt; like wisdom


These manuscripts that cover every aspects of human life is properly scrutinized can yield a lot of information about the culture, society, history and human relations and the depth of their knowledge. There is an old saying that stated the importance of Timbuktu “Salt comes from north, gold from south and wisdom from Timbuktu”. If salt is for health, and gold for wealth, wisdom was for the very existence of culture without which man is beast.


The African Ink-Road


Timbuktu had nothing but wisdom as its own to exchange; and as the store-house of wisdom (being home to Sankore etc; it had no dearth for it. In exchange of the commodities received Timbuktu offered its wisdom in abundance. These treasures of wisdom in the form of manuscripts traveled all through the routs and reached every where the commodities reached; thereby forming the African Ink-Road that stretches between the West Africa to the east and the south. If ancient Asia had a ‘Silk-route’ Africa had a far valuable ‘Ink-Road’. More than sixty libraries are there on this ink-road all richly endowed with these invaluable manuscripts.


The stunning abundance!


Sankore, Djinguereyber, Sidi Yahya all combined gave birth to manuscripts that is so abundant that no one is sure how much of them exist and how much have perished; most of them are secret holdings of the surrounding families. There are about 60 to 80 libraries dotted here and there along the Ink-Road like the Mamma Haidara library, Fundo Kati library (which has a collection of about 3000 manuscripts of the Andolusian origin. At present UNESCO is working in liaison with these libraries to get these manuscripts preseved.


The decline

A typical street scene at Timbuktu, Mali, with omnipresent bread-baking ovens

The Portuguese and other European traders landed in West Africa changing its entire scenario –this region was so far kept away from the Europeans- they devised alternative trade routes thereby diminishing the potential of the existing routes. With the fall of the trade routes the city lost its prominence as a trading center. The attack made by Morisco (Moriscos are Muslims of Spain who were forcible converted to Christianity, the word means Moor-like) mercenaries hastened its fall.


Present Timbuktu


Timbuktu is a UNESCO approved World Heritage Site since 1988 and on that merit it has an international air-port and some amount of tourists visit its sites. This town has a population above 30,000 and headquarters to the local Governor. Whatever its status as a heritage site the people of this town live in utter penury and water scarcity; the Sahara Desert keep on advancing to swallow this little town. UNESCO placed this site in the ‘endangered sites list’ as it was on the verge of getting buried by the desert sand, after necessary works done in 2005 it has been taken out of the endangered list.

Kiyomizu

Kiyomizu-dera the Temple of Kiyomizu, Kyoto Japan

Kiyomizu Temple Rear view of Pagoda and adjacent building

Kiyoto’s Pride

The ancient Buddhist temple at Kiyomizu is located at the eastern part of Kyoto City in the Honshu Island Japan. This temple complex is a World Heritage Site approved by UNESCO since 1994. For a long time; this temple remains as a place for pilgrimage to the Japanese and the entire complex consists of several other shrines and pagodas; among them the most important being Jishu Jinja the shrine of the god of marital bliss and provider of good matches. The Kiyomizu dera remains as the most prominent sight in the city of Kyoto which was once the capital of Imperial Japan this city was also a stronghold of the Buddhist clergy during the 8^th century.

The monk and his golden dream

Statuettes of Ksitigarbha (or Jizou) en masse (Kiyomizu Dera Temple)

This temple of Kiyomizu belonged to the Hosso-Sect of the Buddhist religion founded by a Chinese monk by name Doshi, This sect was a comparatively small one in number of followers but one of the oldest Buddhist sects in Japan. The Kiyomizu as per the legends was the creation of another monk by name Enchin, he did it with the help of a warrior by name Tamuramaro. Here is the legend.

200 years on a log!

One day Enchin the monk saw a dream about a golden stream flowing down from the hill to the Yadogawa River. Next morning itself he set to the hill on the pursuit of the golden stream. There on the hill he saw an old man sitting on a big log. To the enquiries of the monk the old man replied that he was sitting on that log for the last 200 years reciting hymns of God Kannan intending to make an image of that God out of that log. The old man then asked the monk to sit there until his return and went to the top of the hill.

Tamuromaro cometh

Statuettes of Ksitigarbha covered by fern in Kiyomizu Dera temple

Not seeing the old man back the monk went in search and found only a pair of shoes on the peak of the hill. The monk was convinced that the old man was god Kannan himself and started to make the image of Kannan and a temple out of the log on which he sat. By that time a warrior (Tamuramaro) came there while hunting for a stag. Finding the monk and hearing what happened; the warrior donated his house to build the temple as per the wish of the monk, more over he spotted the golden stream to the monk had seen in his dream and helped in building the temple. Tamuromaro’s magnanimity was honored by the king and a palatial house granted to him in return.

The spring of wisdom, an answer to Japan’s technological superiority!

In Japanese ‘Kiyomizu’ means pure water which denotes the three springs situated in the complex just beneath the main hall. These three springs; known as ‘Otawa no taki’ is sourced from the nearby hills, which fall in to a pond; is collected by the devotees –in fact people from far away places visit this shrine to collect this water believed to have therapeutic effects. Of the three springs one for health the second for longevity and the third for success in education (wisdom). This belief and ritual is akin to the Indian ritual of collecting water from holy rivers and keeping it in places where holy images are placed. This water will be dropped in to the mouth of laid up people either for cure or at the time of death.

Jump in to your wish!

This Buddhist temple complex include many structures built in different time, its main hall is having a prominent veranda standing on hundreds of pillars standing magnificently tall from the hillside giving an impressive view. There is one belief among the Japanese that one who jumps from the 30 meter tall veranda and survives will be lucky and his wish will be realized. Up to recent times there were no dearth for these ‘sacred jumpers’; around 300 – 400 people used to jump for the fulfillment of their wish; of which about 15% alone died! The lush green woods grew underneath had done the trick as the tree branches cushioned the impact, yet 50% of the jumpers left with high spirits but fractured bones! Now this jumping is banned by the government. A phrase still exist in Japanese ‘go and jump from Kiyomizu’ equivalent to that in English ‘take a plunge”

Blind love; any takers?

The Jishu Jinja temple is dedicated to Okuninushino Mikoto the god of love and marital matches. There are two rocks placed in this complex at a distance of 18 meters, if one person touch on one of the stone and walks eyes closed to the other stone and succeeds in touching by him self; he will be fortunate enough to find a life-mate himself. Those who have to find others’ help for the job will require other one’s help in finding a partner!

Whatever be the truth it is funny to find devotees and tourists walking eyes closed and occasionally clashing one to the other, these collisions if between a man and a woman can result in to an eternal ‘collision-free’ union! At times middle aged husbands are found in hot pursuit of their ‘closed eyed’ wives; lest they may bump upon an able bodied man! How much bliss it would have provided to the loners if such a temple existed in New York or Chicago! It is a tragedy that Mikoto is only in Japan.

O....Mikuji!!!!

One of the lovestones in kiyomizu dera temple

This temple complex is extremely popular among tourists (to see the temple and strange rituals) and devotees (to collect holy water and pray). Summer and the O-bon festivals are season time and it is a mess here when tourists, devotees, students (who come here in search of gaining good grades by drinking water from Otawa no taki; there by saving efforts of hard work!), and touts selling ‘O-mikuji’ (talisman or folded paper with fortunes written in it) for easy access to fortunes etc. It is said that these touts have two types of O-mikuji those who pay well will get good fortune and those bargain for a lesser price will get O-mikuji that will bring bad lucks! Strange Japanese business technologies!

Kyoto and all its missed emissions!

The Kyoto City where this temple complex stands gained fame for hosting the ‘International Framework Convention on Climate Change’ first held in 11^th December1997, then in 2005 and 2007 to pursue ‘action on green house gas emissions’; those events related to the convention still occupy top slots in media even during these times. The presence of such a wonderful Buddhist shrine (built in 798 AD and the surrounding monuments built after nine centuries (1633) was not adequately mentioned in most of the reportings related to the meeting of climate changes.

How to reach

The main gate of Kiyomizu Dera Temple

Kiyomizu is just 15 minutes from Kyoto by bus (bus number 100 or 206), alight at Kiyomizu-michi or Gojo-zaka; and another 20 minutes walk take you to the shrine, the path is clean clear and safe early morning is fine for the climb. There are numerous stalls that vend local delicacies and souvenir shops, to make a tour worth to remember. A walk between the stones of Jishi Jinja Temple with closed eyes alone may be enough to for a life long reward; if not convinced go to the Kiyomizu and feel it youself!

Alhambra

Alhambra, Granada Spain- The Red Palace

Alhambra Granada Spain

Something odd in Spain!

Alhambra (means ‘the red’ in Arabic) is in Granada in Southern Spain, the name may make one to think that it may be located in Turkey or Saudi Arabia. The Alhambra Palace Complex has passed through turbulent times of the Europe and there are many historical events behind its construction, reconstruction, additions and finally to its change in to a museum of exquisite Islamic arts and architecture. In the middle age (between the 1^st and 10^th centuries) Spain and its surrounding areas were in turmoil as the Semitic Religions playing different games (most of them bloody) for adding maximum numbers to their respective groups as well as doing everything for the elimination of the others.

On the edge of the sword!

Alhambra from the "Mirador de San Nicolás" in the Albaycin of Granada.

Romans; that called the shots during the reign of Augustus Caesar colonized Spain along with neighboring regions and formed ‘Hispania’. Visigoths from the Germanic regions were there with Christianity. Muslims from Africa rose as a major power after the weakening of the Roman Empire. Paganism of Rome was crumbling before the new wave of Semitic Religions. Christianity of Visigoths and Islam from Arabs all struggled for supremacy; in between them were some pockets of Jews finding it hard to survive. Religious persecutions became the order of the day, human blood flowed like river. Conversions and re-conversions at the edge of the sword prevailed. By 5^th AD major parts of Spain fell in to the hands of Muslims and that spell lasted up to the 10^th Century AD until the return of ‘reinforced’ Christianity. The Alhambra is a product of this period.

And quietly flows the Darro!

The River Darro which flows beside the Alhambra was a case point, its initial name was Aurus (meaning gold as its sand contained traces of gold and small-scale gold extractions were taking place there), when Arabs took over the land they ‘converted’ the river and named it as ‘Hadarrb’, lately Christians took over the reign and re-Christened the ‘Muslim’ river in to a Christian river and named it ‘Dauro’. This river is presently known as ‘Darro’. If the fate of and ‘innocent’ river is this what would be that of historical monuments. The changes of rulers had corresponding changes in the Alhambra, many additions, many desecrations and many modifications.

The original Qal’at al Hambra

The Muslim rulers known as the Moors engaged in massive conversion of Christians and Pagans in to Islam; these new converts to Islam were known as Muladis; the Muladis grew in strength and power and finally drove out the Moors who were forced to take shelter in the original Qal’at al Hambra (the red fort) they used it as residence as well as court. At that time Alhambra was a medium sized building. Enemies easily entered in the fort and destroyed it. This building lied there in the state of ruins; ignored by all for centuries.

Second and the third births

The Court of the Lions, a unique remain of islamic animal statues.

Samuel Ibn Naghrallah Vizier (top official under Muslim rulers) to King Badis of the Zirid dynasty rebuilt it with red-clay; which also got eventually destroyed. It was Nasser of the Nasrid Dynasty who finally built the structure that stands intact today. The Nasrid Dynasty was established by Ibn Nasser found asylum in Granada running away to avoid persecution from King Ferdinand in early 13^th century.

A palatine city

The architecture adopted by Nasrid was different from the Umayyad style that existed here before (The Cordova Mosque is a typical Umayyad Style structure), Nasrid got the entire complex transformed in to a palatine city with six palaces (four of them royal residences), an advanced irrigation system known as acequias (al saqiya in Arabic for community water supply), numerous bath-houses and all paraphernalia required for a royal city.

Not an inch to spare

Fountains and flowing water are a common feature around the Alhambra

Not even an inch is spared from artworks, arches were made only for aesthetics, walls covered with expensive and enchanting ceramics and ornate plasters, coverings made of wooden frames carved so beautifully. As in the case of typical Muslim palaces walls are adorned of calligraphy depicting poems. ‘Zawi ben Ziri’ (founder Nasrid dynasty), Allah Aqbar (meaning god is the victor), etc. The decorative elements frequently used are inter lacing vegetative forms with nets of rhombuses (net-shaped carvings known as ‘jallies) as human figures are taboo, Now let us see some of the individual items

The Column

The Alhambra is creditable with unique styling the column on which it is built is a cylindrical shaft with molded concave base and decorative rings at the top. Its capital is divided in to two; the first one is cylindrical it has a prism with round base with ornate carvings.

The Hall of ‘Abencerraejes’ is decorated with arches and marble floors, it is said that the knight of Abancerrjes was beheaded at this hall and hence the name. There are markings on the floor said to be the blood stain of the knight. No one is sure which knight was beheaded and who ordered for it.

Hall of Two Sisters has the name denoting two marble stones placed in it. It was built by Mohammed 5 and includes bed chambers, gardens, emperor’s chamber and porticos connecting them together.

Comares Palace; the official residence of the king, has several rooms surrounded by Court of Myrtles. All rooms have galleries with porticos, this complex include Hall of the Boat and the Hall of Ambassadors. Its walls are decorated with holy-verses.

Court of the Myrtles; one of the most beautiful structures of the complex made of pure white marble, with a pond that reflects the building it stands in contrast to the lush green myrtle bushes and hence its name (this building has got different names in different times).

Mexuar including tower and a gallery is believed to be built by Nasrid but it had undergone several modifications and its original shape has become hard to guess. It is so named as the architect Michuka lived in it during the construction.

The Oratory; located behind the Mexaur has arches and walls with inscriptions and verses from Qur’an. This hall suffered extensive damages in an explosion and renovated in 1917.

Gilded Room (Cuarto Dorado); it is part of the Comares Palace and got its name for its painted Mudejar style and coffered ceiling. It has highly decorated walls and is connected to the Mexaur with a little arch. Patio of the Gilded room was renovated in 1943 and fountain reinstalled as per the exact original design.

Bath complex

The bath complex is comprised of many chambers typical to Arabic style big bath tub alone are provided and no swimming pool. There is provision for cold, hot as well as steam baths. The first to come is the ‘frigiderium’ with large cold water basin, ‘tepidarium’ (provided at the central hall) with warm water and finally a ‘caldarium’ for steam bath. Inside the hall there is a copper boiler in which water is boiled and piped to the required basin by underground pipes. Remnants of these pipes are still visible.

The Royal bath; What a royal bath!

The Royal Bath; is built at the east of the Comares Palace, with a fountain in the middle surrounded by columns. The Hall of Beds was the place to undress before bath with an open side for the emperor to watch. The lady who catches his attention had gets an apple thrown at her as a mark of her approval. With the apple she gets the privilege to spend that night with the emperor. Such a throw with emperor’s apple was rare chance to that lady as the harem is filled with numerous ‘wives’ and only lucky ones get a chance to spend one night with the emperor!

Evolution of styles

A room of the palace and a view of the Court of the Lions.

If the Darro River had to carry many names with change of rule; the shape of the palace also has undergone changes in accordance with the change of the rulers. First names were Arabic then came Spanish names. Some of the names mentioned above are just English translations of the Spanish names. The Islamic artists living cut off from the mainstream Islamic arts slowly evolved in to a separate entity by name ‘the Andalusian’ artists. Most of the Islamic traits got transformed and a new style specific to the region of Andalusia which remains as the uniqueness of Alhambra structures.

The Christian era

By the beginning of the 15^th century whole scenario changed Granada became the seat of the Christian Arch Bishop! The Moors were expelled and those Muslims who stuck to Islam fled to Africa. Charles V established a university in Granada and a court in Alhambra. The renaissance and the Baroque deleted the Islamic remnants from the landscape. There were tremendous activities of construction, churches were made in fashionable designs, facades, canvasses, sculptures all were started dotting the entire city-scape.

French occupation and after

The French occupation was not as sweet and almost all the original structures were destroyed, nothing came up to replace what was lost. Even the expulsion of the French could not usher the old charm of the city as revolutions and revolts were regular. Only by the end of the 19^th century a building boom that followed could add something to make the city’s charm. At present Granada remains as a modern city with sparkling gems of the yesteryears with well restored monuments. Its main dependence is on the students who flock to the 450 years old University as a center of excellence.

7 Natural Wonders of the World

7 Natural Wonders of the World

But on his grace!

There is no end to the wonderful things in this universe; some of them manmade and the others made by the god almighty, this article deals with the latter. There are so many of them and to select only seven out of these countless wonders; is a tall order in itself. As a prayer recited in Indian homes goes means in English some what like this...

“How wonderful the ocean is! the heaven and the living world!

I bow before thee thinking of all these wonders you have made”

This simple prayer reflects the surprise one feels when see the world as a third person.

No narrow views.

Various organizations have conducted polls to elect the top seven natural wonders and come out with varied results, in such a poll regionalism influences choice of the people. Here we have come out with a list of locations purely based on real merits as well as popularity without giving any chance to narrow and self interested views.

Click on the Links / Images to navigate to full Articles.

1. Grand Canyon, Arizona USA.

The Grand Canyon

Our first choice is the Grand Canyon as it is the most unusual formation on the face of the earth. A gigantic rupture existing in the state of Arizona, US with a width of 29km and an average depth of about 1.5km spanning a total length of 500km along the Colorado River. As per the scientists the running waters of the river licked away the upper surface of its base to create the canyon of that size; which would have taken millions of years, now the Grand Canyon is hot tourism destination for domestic and international tourists where thousands of tourists this gigantic mouth of the earth with awe. Click here to read the full article...

2. Mount Everest, Nepal, Asia.

The Mount Everest

Known locally as Sagar Matha (meaning forehead of the sky); the Mount Everest which has a height of 20002 is highest location on earth. It is located between Nepal and Tibet, from time immemorial this mountain is an object of worship as the abode of god by the people who lived around it. Everest always posed a challenge to adventurers round the world. In an attempt to climb over it many bold people perished; more had to return back in despair. In 1953 a team led by Edmund Hilary (an Australian) and Tensing Norgay (a native belonging to the Sherpa Tribe) could reach at the top. Click here to read the full article...

3. Great Barrier Reef, Australia.

The Great Barrier Reef

The gigantic 2000 km long Barrier Reef located in the mid South Pacific Ocean in the coast of Australia; formed by the activity by hundreds of billions of Sea Anemones for several million years. More than serving as a natural wall protecting the islands from violent sea waves this barrier serves as a great ecosystem harboring thousands of types of plants and animals. Of late the world has recognized the importance of this natural wonder and UNESCO has certified it as a World Heritage Site. Click here to read the full article...

4. Victoria Falls between Zambezi and Zimbabwe, Africa.

The Victoria Falls

Local people call it Mosi oa Tunya meaning thundering clouds. River Zambezi flows quietly through the African Plains and unexpectedly tumbles down in to the deep gorge giving birth to the largest water curtain in the world 360 feet in height and 5577 feet in length with a deafening sound. It was the great explorer of all times the Dr. David Livingstone who brought to the out side world about the existence of this great fall. Click here to read the full article...

5. Harbor of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Latin America.

Harbour of Rio de Janeiro

At the East Coast of Brazil where the Atlantic juts in the shore creating a bay (Guanabara Bay) with 143 km in circumference. Its mouth guarded by two big, steep, and naked mountains, The Sugar Loaf and the Corcovodo Mountains. The Rio de Janeiro city that is adjacent to the bay is one of the most thickly populated parts of the world. Once this bay was dotted with numerous islands; all those were siphoned away for landfill. Click here to read the full article...

6. Paricutin Volcano, Mexico, Latin America.

Paricutin Volcano

A volcano that sprung from a corn field owned by Dionisio Pulido a Native Indian in February 20, 1943. The volcano engulfed the entire village of Paricutin and adjacent San Juan forcing people to vacate. As it was born recently and that too in a populated area it has served as a laboratory to the scientists. This volcano is 424 meters in height and located at a height of 3170 meters above sea level. It erupted for a second time in 1952 killing three people (by the lightening due to the fumes). Click here to read the full article...

7. The Northern Lights (Aurora Borealis).

The Northern Lights

The wonderful colorful designs appear in the arctic skies during September to October and March to April. This phenomenon kept ancient people in tender hooks and they kept fabricating stories about it. Kristian Birkeland was the scientist who solved the mystery that surrounded the Aurora. For him Aurora is the result of collision and energy exchanges between charged particles showered by the sun and those of the earth’s magnetic field. Click here to read the full article...

There are many others!

The most painful thing in such selection is exempting some sites that are equally miraculous but there are only seven could be chosen. The rest of the wonders are not at all forgotten or ignored. They all will be covered one by one otherwise it would be injustice and negligence on the part of a writer.

The Kremlin and Red Square

The Kremlin and Red Square

Kremlin palace image courtsey: rbrides.com

Kremlin – a fortressed complex with most beautiful

cathedrals, Palaces and armories.

The heart of Moscow.

Kremlin is undoubtedly the heart of the biggest nation in the world Russia it is a cultural refuge of a nation that has had a long history of blood shed and sufferings under despotic emperors as well as autocratic political figures. Kremlin a fortified complex of 68 acres covered by a wall 2235 meters long and a height of 5 to 19 meters! Churches, armories and palaces all with a long and rich history of their own scramble here to find their place.

So unique!

Kremlin Palace interior image courtsey: geocities.com

From the beginning of the 12^th century Kremlin has been the nerve center of Russia, with a brief spell when Peter the Great shifted his capital to Peter’s burg alone Kremlin was deprived of that status. When Russia emerged as the capital of world’s communism, Kremlin had the role of managing that ideology world wide!

Peter the great image courtsey: wikipedia.org

In its centuries old history it has witnessed numerous often horrific dramas in the corridors of power; either religious or political.

Interior Kremlin Palace image courtsey: geocities.com

Despite the horrendous course of history Kremlin had to undergo its towers remain as a feast to the eye of onlookers, because they are such works of art; so unique and unparalleled.

A Phoenix.

The Grand Kremlin Palace image courtsey: newsimg.bbc.co.uk

Kremlin is the official residence of the president of Russia; it was Peter Metropolitan of Rus who moved the seat from Kiev to Moscow. had been destroyed several times but it always woke up from the ashes as fresh and beautiful maiden in her teens.

Kremlin photo courtsey: geocities.com

The complex existed even before it came to be known as Kremlin (former name was Grad, name Kremlin from 1331), the first to do extensive beautification and considerable extension works was Dolgorukiy in 1156. The ‘credit’ destroying Kremlin first goes to the Mongols on 1237, but got it rebuilt in 1339.

Ivan the Great.

Ivan the great image courtsey: wikipedia.org

1462 -1505 was the golden times Ivan the Great on the helm Kremlin rose to the nerve center of whole Russia. Ivan defiantly tore off the binding agreement with Mongolia and declared it free to look after its own affairs. It was Ivan who rebuilt the unique cathedrals, and palaces and armories in the fortress. He brought skilled architects from Italy for the purpose Pierto Antonio Solari and Marco Rufo were prominent among them. Kremlin remained in this glory until Peter the Great shifted the capital to Petersburg.

Napoleon Blown apart.

Napolean Bonaparte image courtsey: tripod.com

The French army under Napoleon invaded and occupied Kremlin for a period (September 2^nd to October 11^th). At the time of his retreat Napoleon ordered to blow up the entire structure; and Kremlin burned for three days (21 -23 October) finally a timely rain put out the fire. Several towers and valuable archives were lost in this ghastly incident. As usual this damage was also repaired under architect Osip Bave during the period of Alexander 1. Kremlin emerged in a more beautiful shape in its neo gothic style.

The Armory.

Kremlin Armory image courtsey: geocities.com

It was built by Peter the Great, for the storage of weapons it gradually gained the status of a repository of the exquisite materials of the royal palace. With the retreat of Napoleon it served as an exhibition hall for the weapons captured for the Napoleon’s army (Grande Armee). The real weapons shifted to Peter’s burg had been returned to here on 1851. The armory has one of the richest holding of very valuable as well as the rarest materials on earth like the Orlov diamond that weighs 190 carats.

The State Kremlin Palace.

Kremlin Auditorium image coursey: geocities.com

This is a modern building built by Khrushchev former Soviet premier in 1961. This has an auditorium with a seating capacity of 6000 and serves for the congresses of Communist Party held annually. Monumental bas relief (sculptures partly projecting out of walls) of Lenin’s face with radiation of light is a prominent work catches viewer’s attraction.

Cathedral Square.

The big public space constructed by Ivan the Great; it is the representative of the Tsarist regime. Nobilities of that time used to assemble here and high profile ceremonies like coronation etc used to be held here.

• Cathedral of the Dominion.

• Cathedral of the Annunciation.

• Cathedral of the Arch-Angel.

Church of the twelve apostles image courtsey: wikipedia.org

• Cathedral of 12 Apostles and Church of Deposition (domestic churches).

Church of the deposition image courtsey: wikipedia.org

Tsar Cannon and bell.

TSAR canon image courtsey: geocities.com

These two are world’s most cherished possessions stored in the Kremlin, the cannon the biggest in the world (890 mm caliber) has never been used, its barrel is five meter long and the cannon weighs 40 tons! Its barrel is decorated with artworks like a fight between lion and snake.

TSAR bell image courtsey: geocities.com

The bell the largest in the world weighs 200 tons! Built by Empress Anna in 1737 it fell from the cast and cracked, it could never ring as the cannon could never fire!

Ivan the Great Bell-Tower.

Ivan Bell Tower image courtsey: geocities.com

The tallest structure of Russia, made of white stones with shining gilt-dome, it is recorded that its construction lasted the whole of the 16^th century.

Assumption Cathedral.

Assumption Cathedral image courtsey: grahamglass.blogs.com

Built by Ivan 1 in 1330 is the oldest of all structures and the biggest, built by the Italian architect Fioravanti from Bologna. After the construction when Fioravanti asked permission to go home the Emperor imprisoned him until death! At present it serves as the seat of Russian Orthodox Church.

The three great palaces.

These palaces are not open to visitors of which Terem palace the oldest, the Faceted Palace was built by Ivan -3. The third the Great Kremlin Palace built in the 19^th century was for the residence of Nicholas 1.

Kremlin as a complex.

It is a fact that most of the remarkable constructions in the world are either of the kings (palaces, armory or forts) or of the gods (temples, church or mosques). The specialty with Kremlin is that it is a fort, a group of palaces as well as a group of cathedrals, or in other words a full-fledged city within a city. The onion-shaped spires of Kremlin stands as a wonderful spectacle even among a million structures easily identifiable for its colorful domes and looks rather crowded from a distance as if flower-buds placed in a pot and gives the an unworldly feeling to the spectators.